Ashoka

The contacts between India and the western world which
Chandragupta Maurya had established continued during the
reign of his son, Bindusara. Ambassadors came to the court at
Pataliputra from Ptolemy of Egypt and Antiochus, the son and
successor of Seleucus Nikator of western Asia. Ashoka, grandson
of Chandragupta, added to these contacts, and India became in
his time an important international centre, chiefly because of
the rapid spread of Buddhism.
Ashoka succeeded to this great empire about 273 B.C. He had
previously served as viceroy in the north-western province, of
which Taxila, the university centre, was the capital. Already the
empire included far the greater part of India and extended
right into central Asia. Only the south-east and a part of the
south were beyond its sway. The old dream of uniting the whole
of India under one supreme government fired Ashoka and forthwith
he undertook the conquest of Kalinga on the east coast,
which corresponds roughly with modern Orissa and part of
Andhra. His armies triumphed in spite of the brave and obstinate
resistance of the people of Kalinga. There was a terrible
slaughter in this war, and when news of this reached Ashoka he
was stricken with remorse and disgusted with war. Unique
among the victorious monarchs and captains in history, he
decided to abandon warfare in the full tide of victory. The
whole of India acknowledged his sway, except for the southern
tip, and that tip was his for the taking. But he refrained from
any further aggression, and his mind turned, under the influence
of Buddha's gospel, to conquests and adventures in other fields.
What Ashoka felt and how he acted are known to us in his
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own words in the numerous edicts he issued, carved in rock and
metal. Those edicts, spread out all over India, are still with us,
and they conveyed his messages not only to his people but to
posterity. In one of the edicts it is said that:
'Kalinga was conquered by His Sacred and Gracious Majesty
when he had been consecrated eight years. One hundred and
fifty thousand persons were thence carried away as captive, one
hundred thousand were there slain, and many times that number
died.
'Directly after the annexation of the Kalingas began His Sacred
Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of
that Law, and his inculcation of that Law (Dharma). Thus arose
His Sacred Majesty's remorse for having conquered the Kalingas,
because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves
the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people.
That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His
Sacred Majesty.'
No longer, goes on the edict, would Ashoka tolerate any more
killing or taking into captivity, not even of a hundredth or a
thousandth part of the number killed and made captive in Kalinga.
True conquest consists of the conquest of men's hearts by the
law of duty or piety, and, adds Ashoka, such real victories had
already been won by him, not only in his own dominions, but
in distant kingdoms.
The edict further says:
'Moreover, should any one do him wrong, that too must be
borne with by His Sacred Majesty, so far as it can possibly be
borne with. Even upon the forest folk in his dominions His
Sacred Majesty looks kindly and he seeks to make them think
aright, for, if he did not, repentance would come upon His
Sacred Majesty. For His Sacred Majesty desires that all animate
beings should have security, self-control, peace of mind, and
joyousness.'
This astonishing ruler, beloved still in India and in many
other parts of Asia, devoted himself to the spread of Buddha's
teaching, to righteousness and goodwill, and to public works for
the good of the people. He was no passive spectator of events,
lost in contemplation and self-improvement. He laboured hard
at public business and declared that he was always ready for it:
'at all times and at all places, whether I am dining or in the
ladies' apartments, in my bedroom or in my closet, in my carriage
or in my palace gardens, the official reporters should keep me
informed of the people's business.... At any hour and at any
place work I must for the commonweal.'
His messengers and ambassadors went to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia,
Cyrene, and Epirus, conveying his greeting and Buddha's
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message. They went to central Asia also and to Burma and
Siam, and he sent his own son and daugher, Mahendra and
Sanghamitra, to Ceylon in the south. Everywhere an appeal was
made to the mind and the heart; there was no force or compulsion.
Ardent Buddhist as he was, he showed respect and consideration
for all other faiths. He prcclaimed in an edict:
'All sects deserve reverence for one reason or another. By thus
acting a man exalts his own sect and at the same time does service
to the sects of other people.'
Buddhism spread rapidly in India from Kashmir to Ceylon. It
penetrated into Nepal and later reached Tibet and China and
Mongolia. In India, one of the consequences of this was the
growth of vegetarianism and abstention from alcoholic drinks.
Till then both Brahmins and Kshatriyas often ate meat and
took wine. Animal sacrifice was forbidden.
Because of the growth of foreign contacts and missionary
enterprises, trade between India and other countries must have
also grown. We have records of an Indian colony in Khotan
(now Sinkiang, Central Asia). The Indian universities, especially
Taxila, also attracted more students from abroad.
Ashoka was a great builder and it has been suggested that he
employed foreign craftsmen to assist in building some of his huge
structures. This inference is drawn from the designs of some clustered
columns which remind one of Persepolis. But even in those
early sculptures and other remains the characteristically Indian
art tradition is visible.
Ashoka's famous many-pillared hall in his palace at Pataliputra
was partly dug out by archaeologists about thirty years
ago. Dr. Spooner, of the Archaeological Department of India, in
his official report, said that this was 'in an almost incredible state
of preservation, the logs which formed it being as smooth and
perfect as the day they were laid, more than two thousand years
ago.' He says further that the 'marvellous preservation of the
ancient wood, whose edges were so perfect that the very lines
of jointure were indistinguishable, evoked admiration of all who
witnessed the experiment. The whole was built with a precision
and reasoned care that could not possibly be excelled to-day....
In short, the construction was absolute perfection of such work.
In other excavated buildings also in different parts of the country
wooden logs and rafters have been found in an excellent state of
preservation. This would be surprising anywhere, but in India
it is more so, for the climate wears them away and all manner
of insects eat them up. There must have been some special treatment
of the wood; what this was is still, I believe, a mystery.
Between Pataliputra (Patna) and Gaya lie the impressive re-
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mains of Nalanda university, which was to become famous in later days. It is not clear when this began functioning and there are no records of it in Ashoka's time. Ashoka died in 232 B.C., after ruling strenuously for forty-one years. Of him H. G. Wells says in his 'Outline of History': 'Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star. From the Volga to Japan his name is still honoured. China, Tibet, and even India, though it has left his doctrine, preserve the tradition of his greatness. More living men cherish his memory to-day than have ever heard the names of Constantine or Charlemagne.'